As demand for mobile computing and all-electric vehicles increases, the limitations of current battery technology are an obstacle. In the 1790s, Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invented the battery. As consumer electronic devices become smaller and uninterrupted use before recharging becomes more and more important, it becomes more and more important that batteries become smaller and more energy-efficient. However, it turns out that this is a technological hurdle that, if surpassed, would be an important and profitable development for the high-tech economy of the future. Battery Technology All batteries rely on the basic chemical reactions of reduction and oxidation (redox) that occur between two different materials. These reactions are encapsulated in a closed container. The oxidized cathode or positive electrode is reduced by the anode or negative electrode. The cathode and anode are physically separated by an electrolyte that allows electrons to flow easily from one end to the other. This flow of electrons creates an electrical potential, which allows current to flow when the circuit is completed. Disposable consumer batteries (known as primary batteries), such as AA and AAA-sized cells, produced by companies like Energizer (ENR), rely on a technology that is not conducive to modern applications. First, they are not rechargeable. These so-called alkaline cells utilize a manganese dioxide cathode and a zinc anode separated by a dilute potassium dioxide electrolyte. The electrolyte oxidizes the zinc in the anode, and the manganese dioxide in the cathode reacts with the oxidized zinc ions to produce electricity. Gradually, reaction by-products accumulate in the electrolyte, and the amount of zinc left to be oxidized decreases. Eventually, the battery died. These cells typically provide 1.5 volts of power and can be sequenced to increase this power. For example, two AA batteries in series provide three volts of power. Rechargeable batteries (called secondary batteries) work on much the same principle, utilizing a reduction-oxidation reaction between two materials, but they also allow the reaction to flow in the opposite direction. The most commonly used rechargeable battery on the market today is lithium-ion (LiOn), although a variety of other technologies have been tried in the search for rechargeable batteries, including nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and nickel cadmium (NiCd). NiCd was the first commercially available rechargeable battery for the mass market, but suffered from the fact that it could only handle a limited number of charges. Nickel-metal hydride batteries replace nickel-cadmium batteries and can be recharged more frequently. Unfortunately, they have a short shelf life, so if they are not used soon after production, they may be ineffective. LiOn batteries solve these problems, come in a small container, have a long shelf life, and allow for multiple recharges. However, LiOn batteries are not the most commonly used batteries in consumer electronics such as mobile devices and laptops. These batteries are much more expensive than disposable alkaline batteries and are generally not available in traditional sizes such as AA, AAA, C, and D (see: Lithium-Ion Battery Inventory). The last type of rechargeable battery that most people are familiar with is the liquid lead-acid battery, commonly used as a car battery. These batteries can provide a lot of energy (just like cold-starting a car) but contain dangerous substances, including lead and sulfuric acid, which is used as the electrolyte. These batteries must be handled with care to avoid contaminating the environment or causing physical harm to those who use them. The goal of Current Battery Technology is to create a battery that can match or improve the performance of Lion batteries, but without the heavy costs associated with their production. Within the lithium-ion family, efforts have been made to reduce prices while adding more ingredients to improve battery performance. For example, arrangements of lithium cobalt (LiCoO2) can now be found in many cell phones, laptops, digital cameras and wearable products. Lithium manganese batteries (LiMn2O4) are most commonly used in power tools, medical devices and power drive systems such as those found in electric vehicles. Currently, there are teams conducting research and development to improve the performance of lithium-based batteries. Lithium-air (Li-Air) batteries are an exciting new development that enable greater energy storage capacity - 10 times more than the typical Lion battery capacity. These batteries "breathe" air by using free oxygen to oxidize the anode. While the technology looks promising, there are some technical issues, including a rapid increase in by-products of performance degradation and "sudden death" problems where batteries suddenly stop working without warning. Lithium metal batteries are also an impressive development, promising to be nearly four times more energy efficient than current EV battery technology. The batteries are also much cheaper to produce, which will lower the cost of products using them. However, safety is a major concern because these batteries can overheat and cause fires, or explode if damaged. Other new technologies being researched include lithium-sulfur batteries and silicon-carbon batteries, but these batteries are still in the early stages of research and not yet commercially viable. There are also developments surrounding solar cells.

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