The working voltage, also known as terminal voltage, refers to the potential difference between the positive and negative electrodes of the battery when the battery is in working condition, i.e. when there is current flowing through the circuit. When the battery is discharging, when the current flows through the battery, it is necessary to overcome the resistance caused by the internal resistance of the battery, which will cause ohmic voltage drop and electrode polarization. Therefore, the working voltage is always lower than the open circuit voltage, while the terminal voltage is always higher than the open circuit voltage during charging. That is to say, the polarization results in that the terminal voltage of the battery is lower than the electromotive force of the battery when it is discharged, and the terminal voltage of the battery is higher than the electromotive force of the battery when it is charged.

Due to the existence of polarization phenomenon, it will lead to a certain deviation between the instantaneous voltage and the actual voltage during battery charging and discharging. When charging, the instantaneous voltage is slightly higher than the actual voltage, and the polarization disappears after charging, and the voltage drops back; When discharging, the instantaneous voltage is slightly lower than the actual voltage, and the polarization disappears and the voltage rises after the discharge.

To sum up, the composition of battery terminal voltage is shown in Figure 3, and the expression is:

Charging: VCH=(E+- E -)+VR=(E+0+ η+）- （E-0 - η-）+ VR

Discharge: VD=(E+- E -) - VR=(E+0- η+）- （E-0 + η-）- VR

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